President Trump's leadership places unprecedented pressure on America's traditional 'system of checks and balances.'

Rewritten Article:

Checks and Balances: The Guardrails of American Democracy

America's democratic system is constructed around a unique set of principles called checks and balances, a concept integral to our nation since its inception. These guardrails systematically prevent any single branch of government from amassing too much power. Throughout history, these safeguards have been tested during periods of political turmoil to ensure a balanced and fair system of governance. Here's a peek into some historical instances showcasing the effectiveness of checks and balances:

Power Struggles between Jefferson and Adams

One of the most foundational clashes over checks and balances: President John Adams made last-minute appointments before he vacated office in 1801. His successor, Thomas Jefferson, along with Secretary of State James Madison, chose to ignore these appointments. Reacting, William Marbury, an Adams appointee as justice of the peace, sued the executive branch to enforce Adams' decisions.

Chief Justice John Marshall, in the landmark 1803 case, concluded the appointments were legitimate once Adams had signed them. Thus, Jefferson and Madison acted improperly by shelving them. However, to minimize judicial intervention, Marshall avoided ordering any action to enforce his ruling. This pivotal decision solidified the court's role in interpreting and striking down congressional acts, while adjudicating executive branch affairs.

Hamilton, Jackson, and the National Bank

Congress, under President George Washington's leadership in 1791, chartered the First Bank of the United States. Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, promoted a strong central government and wanted a national bank to provide the government with loans. Anti-Federalists, led by Jefferson and Madison, argued that the Constitution didn't grant Congress the authority to charter a bank. Although they didn't challenge the courts, Andrew Jackson, the first populist president, despised the bank and thought it was an elitist institution.

In 1832, when Congress sought to renew the charter with provisions to appease Jackson, he shockingly vetoed the measure, paving the way for the bank's transformation into a private, state-based institution in 1836.

Lincoln, Due Process, and Civil War

During the American Civil War, President Abraham Lincoln suspended habeas corpus, allowing for individuals to be arrested without due process. Lincoln defended his actions, stating they were warranted due to the public necessity of preserving the Union. The Supreme Court's Justice Roger Taney, sitting as a circuit judge, ruled the suspension illegal but didn't have the power to enforce his decision.

Congress ultimately sided with Lincoln by retroactively enacting statutes. In another case, the Supreme Court endorsed Lincoln's claim that the office carries inherent wartime powers beyond what the Constitution or Congress explicitly authorizes.

Johnson vs. Congress: The Reconstruction Era

Following the Civil War, President Andrew Johnson demonstrated a more lenient approach to the seceded states and Confederates, contrasting the "Radical Republicans" in Congress' stance on penalties for rebellious states and Confederate leaders. Their disagreements manifested in the establishment of the Freedmen's Bureau to aid newly emancipated African Americans and the repatriation of former Confederates by Johnson using his pardon power.

The Spoils System and the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act

For over a century, federal employment mostly revolved around political appointments, with most positions changing hands after each presidential transition. In 1883, Congress stepped in, introducing the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, which gradually filled select positions through examinations instead of political favor. The law expanded to develop the civil service system that President Trump aims to dismantle by reclassifying tens of thousands of government employees as political appointees or at-will workers.

Wilson's League of Nations and the Senate

After World War I, the Treaty of Versailles called for an international body to foster global cooperation and prevent future conflicts. President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations. However, Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge of Massachusetts introduced amendments to limit the League's influence. The Senate ultimately failed to ratify the treaty due to differing opinions on the matter, setting the stage for the later establishment of the United Nations and NATO.

FDR and Court Packing

Franklin D. Roosevelt reacted to the Great Depression with an aggressive legislative and regulatory agenda backed by Democratic majorities in Congress. A conservative Supreme Court struck down certain New Deal policies as exceeding the powers granted by Congress. Roosevelt retaliated by proposing to expand the nine-member Supreme Court and pressuring justices to retire. Critics dubbed his plan "court-packing." Despite public pressure, the Democratic Congress never seriously considered the idea.

Presidential Term Limits

Roosevelt circumvented the long-standing tradition of presidents serving no more than two terms, winning three and four terms during World War II. Soon after his death, a bipartisan coalition approved the 22nd Amendment to limit presidents to two elected terms. Trump has mulled over the prospect of seeking a third term, despite the constitutional prohibition.

The Nixon Watergate Scandal

The Washington Post uncovered connections between President Richard Nixon's associates and a break-in at the Democratic Party headquarters at the Watergate Hotel during the 1972 election campaign. By the summer of 1974, the investigation grew into congressional hearings, legal battles, and plans for impeachment proceedings. The Supreme Court, in a unanimous decision, ruled against Nixon in his assertion that executive privilege allowed him to withhold materials potentially incriminating himself and his aides. Nixon resigned when it became clear that Congress was on the brink of removing him from office.

Leaving Vietnam

Presidents from John F. Kennedy through Nixon escalated American involvement in Southeast Asia during the Cold War, but Congress never officially declared war. A 1973 agreement, under Nixon, ended U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. However, complete American withdrawal didn't occur until more than two years later, during which Congress trimmed funding for South Vietnam's democratic government. While conservatives later claimed that Congress cut off all funding for Saigon, lawmakers refused to rubber-stamp greater administration requests, asserting their role in checking the president's military and foreign policy agenda.

The Affordable Care Act

In 2010, a Democratic-controlled Congress overhauled the United States' health insurance system, passing the Affordable Care Act, otherwise known as Obamacare. An essential component of the act aimed to require states to expand Medicaid programs. However, in 2012, the Supreme Court ruled that Congress and President Obama could not force states to expand the program by threatening to withhold other federal money already obligated to the states per previous federal law. The court has upheld other aspects of the law, while Republicans, despite controlling both the White House and Congress, have not successfully repealed it.

[1] Landmark Cases in the History of U.S. Law: https://www.history.com/news/landmark-cases-us-law[2] Marbury v. Madison: https://www.oyez.org/cases/us/1/marbury-v-madison[3] Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.polisci.053119.105827

The concept of checks and balances, an integral part of American democracy, prevents any single government branch from amassing too much power.
During the presidency of John Adams, last-minute appointments were made, but his successor, Jefferson, and Secretary Madison chose to ignore them.
In the 1803 case Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court ruled these appointments were legitimate but avoided enforcing the ruling to minimize judicial intervention.
Hamilton and Jackson held contrasting views on the national bank, with Federalists promoting a strong central government and Anti-Federalists asserting the Constitution didn't grant Congress the authority to charter a bank.
Andrew Jackson vetoed the measure to renew the charter for the First Bank of the United States, leading to its transformation into a private institution.
During the American Civil War, President Lincoln suspended habeas corpus, allowing for individuals to be arrested without due process, but his actions were subsequently ruled illegal by the Supreme Court.
In the Reconstruction Era, President Andrew Johnson's lenient approach to the seceded states contrasted with the "Radical Republicans" in Congress, resulting in disagreements over penalties for rebellious states and Confederate leaders.
For over a century, federal employment mainly revolved around political appointments, but the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act introduced examinations for select positions in 1883.
President Woodrow Wilson promoted the League of Nations after World War I, but the Senate failed to ratify the treaty due to differing opinions on the matter.
Franklin D. Roosevelt aimed to bypass a conservative Supreme Court that struck down New Deal policies by proposing to expand the Supreme Court through a plan called court-packing.
The 22nd Amendment, which limits presidents to two elected terms, was approved soon after Roosevelt's death.
Richard Nixon resigned when it became clear that Congress was on the brink of removing him from office due to the Watergate Scandal.
American involvement in Vietnam ended under Nixon, but complete withdrawal didn't occur until more than two years later, with Congress trimming funding for South Vietnam's democratic government.
In 2010, the Affordable Care Act was passed, but the Supreme Court ruled that Congress and President Obama could not force states to expand Medicaid programs.
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