International Agreements on Climate Change: Evolution Post-Kyoto and Paris Protocols
The world is on a trajectory to surpass the critical 1.5°C warming limit, according to current trends, falling short of the core goal set by the Paris Agreement [1][3]. This agreement, a binding climate agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), was adopted in December 2015 and entered into force in November 2016 [8].
The Paris Agreement relies on nationally determined contributions (NDCs), climate action plans submitted by each country outlining their emission reduction targets [5]. These NDCs, though, are voluntary and updated every five years, with the principle of them being "nationally determined" leading to varied ambitions and limited progress assessments outside the five-yearly global stocktake [2][4].
The global stocktake, conducted every five years, serves as a collective review of the implementation of the Agreement, aiming to assess progress towards its long-term goals and inform the next round of NDCs [2]. The first global stocktake highlighted the scale of the ambition gap, underscoring the urgent need to increase renewable energy deployment, improve energy efficiency, and phase out fossil fuels by 2030 [2].
Industrialized countries have a responsibility to lead by providing financial means to developing countries for their mitigation and adaptation efforts, in line with the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities (CBDR-RC) [4]. The International Court of Justice’s 2025 advisory opinion reinforced that States’ NDCs must be fair, ambitious, and aligned with the 1.5°C target, taking into account historical emissions and development levels, with developed countries needing to "take the lead" especially on finance commitments [4].
Political shifts, especially in major emitters’ commitments, pose challenges, yet the Agreement’s flexible, legally non-binding nature allows the process to continue despite such fluctuations [5]. Notable examples include the commitment of China and the EU to stronger targets and cooperation, while the US has fluctuated in its commitment (with withdrawals and re-entries) [3][5].
The Paris Agreement is not the only climate agreement under the UNFCCC. The Kyoto Protocol, another binding climate agreement, came into force in 2005 with 192 signatory states [6]. However, international CO2 markets, such as those under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement, are fuelling the climate crisis by offsetting domestic emissions with certificates for CO2 reductions achieved elsewhere [7].
The UNFCCC currently has 197 signatory states [9]. The UNFCCC Secretariat, based in Bonn, provides organizational and technical support [10]. The national adaptation plans by least developed countries include detailed protection and investment projects to be financed with support from industrialized countries [1].
A significant obstacle to achieving the Global Goal on Adaptation is the systemic financing gap for adaptation efforts [11]. A loss and damage fund was established at COP27, although it remains critically underfunded [1]. The development of a detailed list of indicators is being pursued to create transparency and accountability for the achievement of the Global Goal on Adaptation [12].
In conclusion, the Paris Agreement and related climate agreements under the UNFCCC are crucial in the global fight against climate change. However, the world is still falling short of its core goal, and enhanced ambition and implementation are needed to prevent dangerous climate change. Financial support from industrialized countries to developing nations is essential to bridge the systemic financing gap for adaptation efforts and achieve the Global Goal on Adaptation.
- The need for increased ambition in climate action is highlighted by the Paris Agreement's global stocktake, as it showed the significant ambition gap in addressing climate change, particularly through increased renewable energy deployment, improved energy efficiency, and the phase-out of fossil fuels by 2030.
- Environmental science plays a vital role in this fight against climate change, as it provides the basis for understanding the impacts of climate change and informs the development of effective policies and legislation to mitigate those impacts.
- Politicians and policymakers must take into account the recommendations of environmental scientists when formulating climate policy and legislation, as the proposed solutions must align with the core goal of the Paris Agreement, which is to limit global warming to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels and pursuing efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5°C.
