International Agreement on Climate Change: Evolution Post-Kyoto and Paris Protocols
The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015 and entering into force in 2016, has become the primary global framework for addressing climate change, surpassing the Kyoto Protocol in scope and ambition[1]. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which only required emissions reductions from developed countries, the Paris Agreement recognises climate change as a shared responsibility, with all nations committing to reducing their greenhouse gas emissions[1].
The Paris Agreement's key features include establishing a universal framework where all countries submit "Nationally Determined Contributions" (NDCs) to reduce emissions, and a long-term goal to keep global warming "well below 2°C" and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels[2][3].
While many countries, including the US, EU, and China, have updated their commitments to deeper emissions cuts, current policies and commitments are projected to result in a global warming of around 2.7°C by 2100, exceeding the Paris Agreement's goals[1]. If all net-zero pledges are met, warming may be limited to around 1.8°C, which is still above the 1.5°C goal[1].
In 2025, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion reinforcing the 1.5°C limit as the primary legal and scientific benchmark under the Paris Agreement. The ICJ emphasised that countries have an obligation to increase ambition and align their climate plans to meet this threshold, establishing a stronger normative basis for enforcement and accountability[2][3][5].
To create transparency and accountability for the achievement of the Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA), a detailed list of indicators is being developed. The primary mechanism for achieving the targets in the Paris Agreement consists of national climate protection plans, known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs)[1].
Every five years, there is a global stocktake to review the status of the global progress to mitigate the climate crisis. The annual Conference of the Parties (COP) is the most important decision-making body under the UNFCCC, with the latest COP (COP27) establishing a loss and damage fund to address the impacts of the climate crisis that cannot be avoided despite efforts on emission reductions and adaptation[1].
The UNFCCC, based in Bonn, provides organizational and technical support for the Paris Agreement and other climate-related activities. Despite the progress made, challenges remain, such as the systemic financing gap for adaptation efforts, the underfunding of the loss and damage fund, and the lack of formal commitments from emerging economies to provide financial support to developing countries most affected by the climate crisis[1].
Civil society is demanding reforms in the UNFCCC, including COP majority decisions instead of consensus decisions, clear rules to prevent conflicts of interest, and transparency and opportunities for civil society actors and affected population groups to participate[1]. International CO2 markets, including Article 6 mechanisms under the Paris Agreement, are also fuelling the climate crisis and often result in human rights and land rights violations[1].
As the world continues to grapple with the climate crisis, the Paris Agreement provides a crucial framework for global cooperation and action. However, increased ambition and more effective implementation are essential to limit global warming to 1.5°C and achieve the Agreement's goals.
[1] United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [2] Paris Agreement [3] Kyoto Protocol [4] Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) [5] Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA)
- The Paris Agreement, a global framework for addressing climate change, requires all nations to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions through Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), an important feature of the agreement.
- In a significant move, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) issued an advisory opinion in 2025, reinforcing the 1.5°C limit as the primary legal and scientific benchmark under the Paris Agreement, emphasizing the need for countries to increase their ambition and align their climate plans to meet this threshold.
- The UNFCCC, the primary organization providing support for the Paris Agreement and other climate-related activities, faces demands for reform, including the transition from consensus decisions to majority decisions in the Conference of the Parties (COP), clear rules to prevent conflicts of interest, and increased transparency for civil society actors and affected groups.
