International Agreement on Climate Change Action, with a focus on the Kyoto and Paris Protocols' Execution
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) continues to serve as the primary international forum for global climate governance, with its annual Conference of the Parties (COP) acting as the decision-making body. Established in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the UNFCCC has been ratified by 197 parties, including nearly all countries worldwide [1][2][5].
The UNFCCC's history is marked by significant milestones, such as the adoption of the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015. The Kyoto Protocol, which entered into force in 2005, was the first legally binding treaty under the UNFCCC, requiring developed countries to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by an average of 5% below 1990 levels in its first commitment period (2008–2012) [2][5]. The Paris Agreement, on the other hand, is a universal, ambitious, and dynamic accord committing all countries to limit global warming to well below 2°C and pursue efforts to limit it to 1.5°C [1][2][3][5].
Under the Paris Agreement, countries submit Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)—national plans detailing their climate actions and emission reduction targets. These commitments are nationally determined and non-binding but are subject to periodic review and global stocktakes to increase ambition over time [3]. The primary mechanism for achieving targets in the Paris Agreement involves national climate protection plans, known as NDCs.
However, a systemic financing gap for adaptation efforts remains a major obstacle to achieving adaptive goals, as the majority of climate finance flows support emission reduction [3]. Climate finance is a central element of the climate framework convention and the Paris Agreement, with developed countries having a fundamental obligation to financially support the global South in its efforts to reduce emissions and adapt [3].
The Paris Agreement also sets a global goal to increase the resilience and adaptive capacity of countries and communities to the impacts of the climate crisis through national adaptation plans (NAPs) [6]. In addition, a loss and damage fund was established at COP27 to address irreversible losses and damages due to the climate crisis [7].
Civil society demands reforms within the UNFCCC, including COP majority decisions instead of consensus decisions, clear rules to prevent conflicts of interest, transparency, and participation opportunities for civil society actors and affected population groups [8]. The Global Adaptation Goal (GAG) is being developed to create transparency and accountability for achieving adaptive goals [9].
Emerging economies like China, Brazil, and India, as well as wealthy Gulf states, are unwilling to take on more formal, far-reaching, multilateral commitments regarding financial support for the most vulnerable developing countries [4]. The influence of these emerging economies in international climate diplomacy is increasing due to the absence of the United States in climate negotiations [10].
The UNFCCC Secretariat, based in Bonn, provides organizational and technical support [11]. The CO2 trade under the Paris Agreement aims to compensate CO2 emissions through certificates by reducing emissions elsewhere, often not leading to additional emission reductions [12].
Despite these efforts, the climate crisis remains a pressing issue, with current climate protection efforts under existing NDCs resulting in a projected 2.7°C (2.2°C-3.4°C) of global warming [13]. The Paris Agreement collectively commits all countries to limiting global warming to 1.5°C, but in any case well below 2°C [14]. The climate crisis is often overshadowed by geopolitics and multiple crises, making it crucial for international cooperation and action to address this global challenge.
References: [1] https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/the-convention-of-the-parties/cop1 [2] https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/the-kyoto-protocol [3] https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/items/9485.php [4] https://www.reuters.com/business/environment/emerging-economies-resist-climate-finance-commitments-2021-11-01/ [5] https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/the-unfccc-treaty [6] https://unfccc.int/process/the-paris-agreement/items/10644.php [7] https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/the-convention/items/11039.php [8] https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/nov/01/civil-society-groups-call-for-reforms-to-unfccc-climate-talks [9] https://www.unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-convention/the-convention/items/11041.php [10] https://www.bloombergquint.com/global-economics/emerging-economies-are-shaping-climate-diplomacy-after-us-withdrawal [11] https://www.unfccc.int/secretariat [12] https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-11-03/carbon-markets-are-a-risky-bet-on-climate-change [13] https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/ [14] https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/items/10644.php
- Environmental science plays a crucial role in informing the international negotiations and policy-making surrounding climate change within the UNFCCC, as scientists provide data and analysis to help countries set their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and National Adaptation Plans (NAPs).
- The politics of climate-change policy and legislation are complex, with developed countries having a fundmental obligation to financially support the global South in emission reduction efforts and adaptation strategies, but emerging economies, like China, Brazil, and India, resisting further commitments regarding financial support for vulnerable developing countries.
- General news outlets often cover the ongoing United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) meetings, highlighting significant agreements, such as the adoption of the Paris Agreement, and discussing climate finance, conflicts of interest, and the need for civil society reform within the UNFCCC decision-making process.
