Examination of 19th Century American Continental Expansion Ties In with Empirical Foreign Policy Strategies
In the wake of the Civil War, the United States found itself with a newfound industrial might but limited finesse in international affairs. With the closing of the frontier and an increased focus on trade, America felt the strain to expand beyond its borders.
A Modest Push Outward
By the end of the Civil War, the U.S. wasn't in a position to establish a strong presence on the global stage. The State Department barely registered sixty employees, with no ambassadors representing American interests abroad; only a few scattered foreign ministers in key countries, most of whom gained their positions through bribes. A strong international presence required a strong navy, and the U.S., post-Civil War, was in no shape to maintain one.
Facing isolationist impulses, the United States moved ahead sporadically with a modest foreign policy agenda. Secretary of State William Seward, who held the position from 1861 to 1869, sought to extend American political and commercial influence in both Asia and Latin America. He made fruitful moves such as annexing the Midway Islands, setting the course for a future canal across Central America, and even proposing the acquisition of British Columbia, Hawaii, portions of the Dominican Republic, Cuba, and other territories. Most notably, in 1867, Seward obtained Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million, a move met with criticism as greedy and reckless by some American newspapers.
Seward's successor, Hamilton Fish, who held the position from 1869 to 1877, spent his tenure settling international disputes involving American interests. Highlights include the Alabama claims with Great Britain, resulting in a British payment of $15 million to the United States, and discussions about the Dominican Republic's purchase and Columbia's participation in a transoceanic canal.
Enter the Imperialists
Business interests drove the push for expansion as the country entered the industrial era. U.S. exports skyrocketed from $234 million in 1865 to $605 million in 1875, and imports followed a similar trend, from $238 million in 1865 to $616 million in 1898. American businesses sought to forge stronger ties overseas, ensuring access to international markets, better deals on raw materials, and minimizing the risks associated with foreign entanglements.
Religious leaders and Progressive reformers followed suit, hoping to increase the democratic and Christian influence of the United States abroad. Many believed that their efforts in foreign lands mirrored domestic Progressive reforms. This tandem of economics and morality set the stage for America's push toward empire.
Pioneers of the New Era
Turner and naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan played significant roles in America's shift toward imperialism. Turner's theory of the Frontier shaped the country's understanding of expansion, and Mahan offered practical strategies to maintain a powerful overseas presence. Writer Brooks Adams further highlighted the consequences of losing America's frontier in his work, The Law of Civilization and Decay.
By the 1890s, a new generation of American leaders, ready to prove their mettle on the global stage, emerged. Theodore Roosevelt, then Assistant Secretary of the Navy, was among them. A strong proponent of an expanded foreign policy, Roosevelt urged the expansion of the U.S. Navy to secure overseas expansion.
Expansion Across the Pacific
Turner's and Mahan's ideas laid the groundwork for future territorial expansion. The annexation of Hawaii, with its thriving sugar industry, was one such example, as was the three-way protectorate over the Samoan Islands, ensuring American access to naval refueling stations.
The Road Ahead
In the last decades of the 19th century, the United States transformed from a nation focused on its own shores to a fortress-building, trade-aggling, empire-building juggernaut. The road ahead was fraught with challenges, but America was ready to take on the world.
- Amidst a growing focus on trade and expanding industries, the United States sought to extend its political and commercial influence, with Secretary of State William Seward pushing for territories in Asia and Latin America.
- As America entered the industrial era, business interests, religious leaders, and Progressive reformers collaborated, aiming to enhance access to international markets, advance democratic and Christian influence abroad, and set the stage for the country's imperialist ambitions.
