A Long, Tumultuous History: Bribery, Hardships, and Historical Elections in the Vatican
Contest for papal office featuring alleged bribery, bedroom dealings, and copious champagne consumption
Throughout its history, the selection process for Pope has been marked by various means, from divine intervention to manipulation, hardship, and corruption. While the modern election process sees less bribery and more streamlined procedures, understanding the historical context is crucial.
Ancient to Early Medieval Period
Divine Intervention or Bribery?
The early Church's papal elections were often times fraught with bribery and meddling by the Roman nobility and clergy. An example is the election in 532 after the death of Boniface II, which was overshadowed by "large-scale bribing of royal officials and influential figures" to secure the papacy.
On the other hand, a rare instance of perceived divine intervention amid the chaos of political infighting occurred in 236. A white dove landed on the head of an uninvolved layman named Fabian, leading Christians to unanimously elect him pope.
Medieval Period
The Pope Chosen by the College of Cardinals
The Second Lateran Council (1139) eliminated the need for assent from the lower clergy or laity, making papal elections an internal affair of the cardinals. The Third Lateran Council (1179) extended voting rights to all cardinals and established the two-thirds majority rule, to discourage factionalism and the rise of antipopes.
Despite these reforms, elections remained highly political and corrupt. The election of 1492, which saw Rodrigo Borgia (Pope Alexander VI) ascend to the papacy, is infamous for bribery, with promises of land, titles, and political influence being exchanged among cardinals.
Hardships During Conclaves
Lack of Modern Amenities
Historians detail the difficult conditions during conclaves. For instance, cardinals shared cramped quarters, occasionally occupying six to a room. Wooden commode chairs ("potties") were placed near beds, and staff had to clean and prepare rooms during prolonged voting sessions.
Eternal Deadlock
Some conclaves lasted for months or even years. In the mid-13th century, cardinals were deadlocked for nearly three years without reaching a consensus.
Reasons for Reforms
Preventing Factionalism and Antipopes
The two-thirds majority rule, introduced in 1179, aimed to ensure broad consensus and prevent the rise of rival claimants, a persistent problem in church politics.
Reducing Outsider Influence
The elimination of the requirement for lower clergy or laity approval centralized decision-making within the College of Cardinals, reducing opportunities for external interference.
Alleviating Physical Hardships
Although less directly targeted by reforms, the discomfort of conclave conditions were gradually alleviated over time, as the Vatican improved facilities for modern conclaves.
Reducing Corruption
The requirement for a supermajority and the secrecy of the conclave were designed to reduce bribery and political bargaining, though these practices persisted well into the Renaissance.
Modern Adjustments
In recent times, Pope Benedict XVI restored the strict two-thirds majority requirement after a brief period when an absolute majority was allowed in case of deadlock, seeking to ensure legitimacy and discourage factionalism.
Summary Table: Key Reforms and Their Rationales
| Period/Reform | Main Changes/Events | Reason for Reform/Event ||-----------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------|| 236 (Fabian) | Legendary "dove" intervention | Divine inspiration vs. corruption || 532 (Boniface II) | Large-scale bribery in election | Highlighted need for reform || 1139 (Second Lateran Council)| Only cardinals vote; no lay/clerical assent required | Centralize authority, reduce meddling || 1179 (Third Lateran Council) | All cardinals vote; two-thirds majority rule | Prevent factionalism, antipopes || 1492 (Alexander VI) | Bribery scandal in the Sistine Chapel conclave | Highlighted corruption in process || 2007/2013 (Benedict XVI) | Restored two-thirds rule; conclave timing changed | Ensure legitimacy, streamline process |
Conclusion
Throughout its history, the selection process for Pope has been shaped by cycles of scandal, hardship, and reform, with bribery and factional strife leading to vigorous reforms aimed at ensuring the legitimacy, reducing external interference, and protecting the church from schism. Even as the physical conditions of conclaves improved, the focus on transparency, consensus, and integrity in the election process has remained central to these reforms.
- Over the centuries, the papal election process has evolved drastically, with reforms focusing on eliminating bribery and reducing external influence.
- The early Church's election process was rife with corruption, as exemplified by the election in 532, overshadowed by large-scale bribing of officials.
- The Vatican's historian details the challenging conditions during conclaves, such as cramped quarters and wooded commode chairs in the absence of modern amenities.
- The Common Foreign and Security Policy has played a significant role in European politics, with nations like the Vatican negotiating valuable agreements to advance their interests, while maintaining unity through shared values and mutual cooperation.
