Byzantine Empire Post-Rome: Cycles of Ascendancy and Decline
The Decline and Fall of Byzantium: A Shift in the Narrative
The eastern half of the Roman Empire, often referred to as Byzantium, persisted for a thousand years after the downfall of the western empire. Despite boasting most of Rome's traditions and inventions, this civilization is not as extensively celebrated in contemporary perception. So, why is that?
It's likely because, as with the western empire before it, Byzantium eventually succumbed. However, it didn't just crumble—it was assimilated into the Ottoman Empire, a distinct culture with its own customs and traditions. Moreover, the stark religious divide between Christianity and Islam, as seen from medieval Europe's perspective, created a centuries-long misconception that distinguished the Byzantine-Ottoman culture of the east from the Roman-European medieval culture of the west.
Byzantium's roots can be traced to Emperor Constantine's decision to establish a new Roman capital in the Greek village of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople (City of Constantine). By the time the western empire collapsed, the center of power in the Roman Empire had long since shifted to the east. Blessed with Constantinople's impregnable walls and a population of proud Roman citizens, the eastern empire typically outmatched the barbarians who tried to seize power and overthrow the ruling emperors.
While the west fell into political disarray, the east managed to remain prosperous, united, and strong. The presence of Constantinople, comparatively wealthy compared to any western European city at the time, played a significant role in the east's wealth and power. Contrast this with Toulouse, the capital of the Gothic kingdom of Gaul, which could barely muster 15,000 residents. Despite being outnumbered and outmatched, the eastern Roman army repeatedly massacred barbarian invaders and deposed unpopular emperors who attempted to rule as military dictators rather than as truly Roman emperors.
Another factor to consider is the eastern Roman empire's tax system, which was far more efficient than the west's. The eastern imperial government brought in roughly 270,000 pounds of gold in tax revenue each year, compared to about 20,000 in the west. This wealth enabled the east to field well-equipped, well-trained, and provisioned armies, making it a formidable adversary. Additionally, while the west remained dominated by the wealthy Roman elite who undermined the power of the western imperial government, the eastern elite was considerably weaker and less inclined to interfere.
Compare this with the west, where the decline in Roman identity, particularly in the east, was steadier and more profound. Even if poor farmers didn't have much to thank the Roman state for in their daily lives, they were governed by local Roman leaders instead of Gothic or Frankish overlords. This continuity of Roman rule likely fuelled the eastern empire's longevity. Moreover, the east was spared significant barbarian invasions, enabling the empire to maintain its borders and focus on internal affairs.
One of the most influential emperors of Byzantium was Justinian, who ruled from 527 to 565. He spearheaded a tradition that lasted throughout the Byzantine era: the emperor being both the spiritual leader of the Christian Church and the secular ruler of the empire. Justinian felt that it was his sacred duty as leader of the greatest Christian empire of the world to enforce religious uniformity and suppress heresy. Despite failing to convert all his subjects to orthodoxy, he launched several attacks and persecutions against heretical sects.
Justinian's reign also saw the demolition of pagan institutions initiated by his Christian predecessors. The Olympics, the ancient religious festival, were shut down by the emperor Theodosius I back in 393 CE. Justinian insisted that all teachers and tutors convert to Christianity and abandon their teaching of the Greek classics. He destroyed Plato's Academy, operating for almost 1,000 years, when the scholars refused. Many fled to Persia, where the Sasanian rulers welcomed them warmly.
Justinian also codified Roman law, imposing it on all his subjects. While Rome had traditionally permitted local customs and laws to exist as long as they didn't interfere with tax collection, recruitment, or loyalty, Justinian believed that Roman law represented an aspect of Roman unity. He sought to stamp out other forms of law under his jurisdiction, leading to his famous Corpus Juris Civilis.
Theodora, Justinian's wife, worked tirelessly to improve the situation of women, including freeing prostitutes from the clutches of sexual slavery, expanding their legal rights, and protecting them from infanticide. A courtesan and former actress, she was an intelligent and strong partner to Justinian, advising him and collaborating with him on both legal and architectural projects throughout their lives.
As the Italian campaign stretched on, the plague, often referred to as the Plague of Justinian, struck in 542. This devastating pandemic killed off half the population of Constantinople and one-third of the empire as a whole. The loss of lives and resources weakened the empire, exacerbating its vulnerabilities.
After Justinian's death, the eastern empire gradually slipped from his successors' grasp. Despite the continued pretensions to empire and the emperor's papal-like status, Byzantium was effectively a kingdom by the middle of the seventh century. The empire's territories contracted to the Balkans and Greece, eventually comprising just the city of Constantinople and its immediate territories.
The Roman Empire's eventual collapse was surprisingly swift and relatively painless compared to the prolonged decline of Byzantium. Despite surviving for more than a thousand years after the western empire's fall, Byzantium ceased to be an empire by the middle of the seventh century, unable to withstand the onslaught of external threats like the Persians, Arabs, and Bulgars.
Despite its long-term decline, Byzantium still demonstrated remarkable resilience. Thanks to the resilience of its people, the prosperity of its trade networks, and the leadership of its emperors, Byzantium continued to thrive as a major state and culture for centuries, even as its territories hovers. Its impressive architecture and rich religious traditions remain important legacies of this remarkable civilization.
The decline and fall of Byzantium's political landscape may have contributed to its less celebrated status in contemporary general-news. Even as it assimilated into the Ottoman Empire, Byzantium's unique customs and traditions persisted, marking a distinct shift from the Roman-European medieval culture.
The political unrest and religious divide that characterized Byzantium's relationship with its Ottoman successors make for compelling general-news stories, highlighting the complexities of the Eastern Roman Empire's transformation.
