American Territories in Spain's Sphere and Frontiers During the American Revolutionary Period
Tackling the Threat - Spanish Presidios and Leather- Jackets in the Age of the American Revolution
by Dr. Robert T.C. Goodwin, Research and Teaching Fellow, University College London
When the American Revolution unfolded, the Spanish saw it as a mix of dread and glee. England was Spain's age-old imperial challenger. The French and Indian War had left Spain licking its wounds, shamefaced and humiliated. So naturally, the Spanish rejoiced at England's misfortunes. But in 1775, the Spanish ambassador to Versailles, the Count of Aranda, warningly predicted that the Thirteen Colonies, whether victorious or defeated, posed a rising menace that could ultimately bring about their demise. He envisioned a formidable army of Anglo- Saxon settlers, banded together and marching towards Mexico, their eyes fixed on the coveted silver mines.
Aranda anticipated the concept of Manifest Destiny by thirty-six years. He even pinpointed the Red River as the invasion route, leading to the relatively prosperous frontier community of El Paso, known for its fiery spirit. Somewhere in New Mexico or Texas, this phantom force would confront the first line of Spanish imperial defense, the mounted border guards known as the leather-jackets.
In 1772, King Charles III of Spain demanded a drastic revamp of the forts known as presidios and their garrisons of leather-jackets, designed to safeguard and control the northern reaches of the viceroyalty of New Spain. The new plan required a string of presidios, each equipped with its own garrison, positioned one-hundred miles apart. This defensive chain, strategically placed from California to Texas, following in essence the modern international border, marked the border of Spanish-occupied territory. Beyond lay the territory of various indigenous populations, which Spain claimed, despite being home to largely hostile, mobile Apache and Comanche tribes.
King Charles III's 1772 Regulation aimed to create an 18th-century Spanish prototype of the controversial modern border wall. While inspired by the spirit of the later border obstacle, the Spanish wall's purpose was to shield the borderlands and the lives and livelihoods of the vassals living in the modern Mexican border states of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas from the relentless encroachment of barbarian tribes surging in from the north. These barbarians were not vast hordes of British colonists, streaming in from the East, but the restless Apache and to some extent Comanche tribes, whose descendants are now American citizens. Northern New Spain had experienced widespread devastation due to the repeated raids on settlements by the Apache and the Comanche. Consequently, numerous Hispanic settlers, predominantly indigenous Mexicans and mixed-race castas, had deserted their isolated farms and communities, triggering a massive depopulation wave and displacement throughout the region.
The ominous threat of Native American attacks masked the persistent, long-term danger posed by Britain and the Thirteen Colonies. The expanding British-American population placed mounting pressure on the Native American population, which manifested as increased Comanche and Apache aggression when it collided with the Spanish world. Furthermore, these Native American raiders sourced weapons and ammunition from trading networks with roots in the Thirteen Colonies, although they also purchased supplies from Spanish Louisiana. Consequently, the Spanish "wall" was not conceived as a safeguard against British or American incursions, but it was a response to the consequences of American demographic growth and expanding commercial connections with Native Americans.
Aranda's prescient warning underscored Spanish concerns about the imminent confrontation with an overt British or American incursion on their territory. Before the Revolutionary War, the most palpable British threat was in Louisiana, ceded to Spain by France in 1763, where British West Florida lay across the Mississippi. The Spanish government aspired to create a buffer against British-American expansion by forging alliances with the various Native American tribes that controlled territories on both sides of the Mississippi. In 1769, military-governor of Louisiana, Alejandro O'Reilly, convened a grand Indian Council where he negotiated peace treaties with tribal leaders, trading gold medals adorned with images of King Charles III for their loyalty.
Despite Spanish efforts to maintain a neutral stance during the Revolutionary War, Spain cast doubt on its intentions by secretly providing the rebels with essential supplies and tactical advice. Yet, Spain hoped to drag the conflict out by aiding both sides, ensuring that neither emerged victorious, ultimately aiming to regain control of the Mississippi and the Gulf Coast. Consequently, the Treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, granted Spain control over both East and West Florida, providing Spain control over the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico, including a disputable border with the newly independent United States along the Saint Marys River.
The Porous Barrier
In the aftermath of the Treaty of Paris, the ghostly specter of American aggression materialized in the form of unwanted human presence on the Spanish frontier. Spanish Florida was far from receiving the finest the new United States had to offer. In 1790, the new Spanish governor of Saint Augustine, Manuel de Zéspedes y Velasco, decried the presence of a motley crew of renegade whites, known as the Crackers. They were nomadic like Arabs, trespassing across Spanish territory and occupying the lands of the indigenous population. These Crackers were encouraged by the southern states of America, intent on expanding their boundaries and asserting control over foreign lands.
"America," Zéspedes might have said, "was exporting its unwanted."
Nathaniel Greene, the American general, visited Saint Augustine in 1785, not to solve territorial disputes but to capitalize on the arrival of former British Floridians, now under Spanish rule, to work his new estate in Georgia. Ironically, Greene, who had once commanded a British army against the Spanish, was now seeking to lure Spanish Floridians to his side, highlighting the fluidity and complexity of the relationships between the emerging American nation and its southern Spanish neighbors.
Originally published by History News Network, 04.07.2019, reprinted with permission for educational, non-commercial purposes.
Spanish Presidios and the American Revolution - A Rearguard Battle
The Role of Spanish Presidios
Spanish presidios served as fortified military outposts protecting the northern frontiers of New Spain against external threats, particularly Native American attacks. During the American Revolution, Spain allied itself with France and the United States against Britain, seeking to regain territories lost, like Florida[1]. Spanish presidios played a crucial role in maintaining Spanish control over its territories and defending against potential British expansion.
In the broader context of the American Revolution, presidios formed part of Spain's wider strategy to secure its borders and defend its interests. They supported military campaigns led by figures like Bernardo de Gálvez, who successfully captured British- held territories along the Gulf Coast[1]. Presidios ensured that Spain maintained a military presence in strategic locations, enabling it to secure and support other military operations.
Leather- Jackets - Soldados de Cuero
The term "leather-jackets" (soldados de cuero) referred to a type of Spanish soldier who wore leather armor to shield themselves from Native American arrows. These soldiers were essential to the Spanish colonization efforts and the establishment and defense of presidios. They were frequently tasked with dealing with hostile Native American tribes, securing supply lines, and supporting missions[2].
In the context of the American Revolution and the threat of British-American expansion, the role of the leather-jackets was crucial in maintaining Spanish control over its territories. They formed part of the presidio garrisons that secured Spanish settlements and missions, deterring potential British incursions and protecting Spain's territorial integrity. Their presence helped reassure Spain of its ability to defend its territories and deter potential attacks by British or American forces.
Strategic Implications
The combination of Spanish presidios and leather-jackets provided a robust defense system for the Spanish territories. This system allowed Spain to maintain control over its vast territories while focusing on its military campaigns against Britain during the American Revolution. The strategic placement of presidios and the presence of well-equipped soldiers like the leather-jackets were central components of Spain's successful campaign to regain control of Florida and secure Spain's borders against British expansion[1][2].
In the heat of the American Revolution, Spanish Presidios served as bulwarks against the impending threat of war-and-conflicts, particularly the encroachment of British-American forces. Leather-jackets, the Spanish soldiers clad in protective armor, played a pivotal role in safeguarding the outposts and defending against British-American aggression, marking a significant instance of politics intertwining with general-news.
During this period, the Spanish Presidios functioned as part of a broader strategy to protect their territories and defend against potential British expansion. Strategically positioned along the northern frontiers of New Spain, these fortified outposts housed the resolute leather-jackets, creating a formidable defense system that bolstered Spain's ability to withstand the pressures of war-and-conflicts and maintain control over its territories. This system, built on the combined efforts of Presidios and the Leather-jackets, not only showcased the importance of military tactics but also underscored Spain's political intentions during the American Revolution.
